Today, March 3, 2025, marks the 101st anniversary of the fall of the Khilafah, when the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
This moment is widely regarded as perhaps the greatest disaster in Islamic history since the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols.
It represented the end of the Islamic caliphate, a system of governance that had existed in various forms for over 1,300 years, uniting much of the Muslim world under a single political and religious authority.
The Khilafah, derived from the Arabic word “khalifa” meaning “successor,” refers to the leadership of the Muslim community following the death of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) in 632 CE.
It began with the Rashidun Caliphs — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali (may Allah be pleased with them) — known as the “Rightly Guided” caliphs, whose rule is considered to have been closest to prophetic principles.
Over the centuries, the caliphate evolved through dynasties like the Umayyads, Abbasids, and ultimately the Ottomans, who assumed the title in the 16th century after conquering much of the Islamic heartland.
But by the early 20th century the Ottoman Empire was in decline. Weakened by internal strife, economic troubles, nationalist movements, and losses in World War I (where it sided with the Central Powers), the empire faced immense pressure.
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The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne recognised Turkey’s independence, but the caliphate’s fate remained uncertain. On March 3, 1924 (corresponding to 28 Rajab 1342 AH in the Islamic calendar), the Turkish Assembly abolished the institution, deposing the last caliph, Abdulmejid II, who was exiled with little more than a suitcase.
This act severed the symbolic and political unity of the Muslim Ummah, replacing the caliphate with a secular republic.
Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk played a central role in the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate, orchestrating its abolition as part of his broader vision to transform Turkey into a modern, secular nation-state.
Born in 1881 in Thessaloniki (then part of the Ottoman Empire), Atatürk rose to prominence as a military officer during World War I, particularly for his defense of Gallipoli in 1915.
After the war, with the Ottoman Empire defeated and occupied by Allied forces, he emerged as the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, rejecting the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres that sought to partition Ottoman territories.
By 1922, Atatürk’s forces had expelled foreign occupiers and abolished the Ottoman sultanate, ending the rule of Mehmed VI, the last sultan. This left the caliphate — stripped of its political power — as a purely symbolic religious office under Abdulmejid II, who was appointed caliph but not sultan.
Atatürk saw the caliphate as an anachronism incompatible with his goals of secularism, modernisation, and national sovereignty. He believed that retaining it, even symbolically, would perpetuate religious influence over the state and hinder Turkey’s progress toward Western-style governance.
As president of the newly established Republic of Turkey (proclaimed on October 29, 1923), Atatürk moved decisively. On March 3, 1924, he pushed the Grand National Assembly to pass Law No. 431, which abolished the caliphate entirely. The law declared: “The office of the Caliphate is abolished, since it is incorporated in the meaning and significance of the Government and the Republic.”
Abdulmejid II was deposed, given a small sum of money, and exiled to Switzerland with his family that same night. Other members of the Ottoman dynasty were also banished, severing all ties to the old regime.
Atatürk’s actions were part of a broader secularisation campaign. In the years following 1924, Atatürk abolished Shari’ah courts, closed religious schools (madrasas), banned the fez and other traditional attire, adopted the Latin alphabet, and enshrined secularism in Turkey’s constitution. These “Kemalist” reforms aimed to break from the Ottoman past and align Turkey with European norms, prioritising national identity over pan-Islamic unity.
Internal and external reasons for collapse
Over centuries, the Ottoman Empire struggled with decentralising tendencies. By the 19th century, local governors (like the ayan) and provincial elites gained significant autonomy, weakening the sultan’s control and fragmenting the empire’s unity.
The Ottoman economy also failed to keep pace with Europe’s Industrial Revolution. Reliance on outdated trade systems, agricultural inefficiencies, and heavy debt from foreign loans (e.g., to European powers) crippled its financial stability.
The once-effective Ottoman bureaucracy became riddled with corruption and nepotism. This eroded trust in governance and hampered reforms like the Tanzimat, which aimed to modernise the state but faced resistance from entrenched elites.
The Ottoman military, once a dominant force, lagged behind European advancements. The Janissaries, an elite corps, resisted modernisation, and their eventual abolition in 1826 (the “Auspicious Incident”) left a gap that the empire struggled to fill with a modern army.
The rise of nationalist movements among ethnic groups (e.g., Greeks, Serbs, Arabs) within the empire also fuelled rebellions and independence movements, draining resources and territory.
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 further sidelined the sultanate, shifting power to secular reformers who later abolished the caliphate.
Meanwhile, Western powers, particularly Britain, France and Russia, chipped away at Ottoman territories through wars and treaties (e.g., Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, Treaty of Sèvres in 1920).
Repeated losses in wars — such as the Russo-Turkish Wars (e.g., 1877–78) and the Balkan Wars (1912–13) — shrank Ottoman territory and prestige, exposing its vulnerabilities.
European powers dominated Ottoman trade through capitulations — unequal trade agreements that favoured foreigners — further weakening the empire’s economy and sovereignty.
But it was the Ottoman Empire’s alliance with the Central Powers in World War I led to its defeat. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres imposed harsh terms, partitioning its lands and fuelling Turkish nationalist resistance under Atatürk.
Fall out
The abolition of the caliphate sparked mixed reactions. Within Turkey, secularists and nationalists supported Atatürk, viewing it as liberation from a decaying system. However, religious factions and some rural communities resisted, leading to uprisings like the 1925 Sheikh Said rebellion, which Atatürk’s government brutally suppressed.
Globally, Muslim leaders and populations — from India to Egypt — expressed dismay, seeing the caliphate’s end as a blow to Islamic solidarity. Critics accused Atatürk of betraying a sacred institution for political gain, while his defenders argue he saved Turkey from collapse by adapting to a new world order.
The fall had profound consequences. Colonial powers, particularly Britain and France, had already carved up much of the Middle East under agreements like Sykes-Picot (1916), but the absence of a caliphate left Muslim lands fragmented and vulnerable.
New nation-states emerged, often ruled by secular or authoritarian regimes backed by Western interests.
The abolition sparked outrage and debate across the Muslim world, exemplified by movements like the Khilafat Movement in India, which had sought to preserve the institution during the early 1920s but ultimately failed.
For many Muslims, the loss of the Khilafah symbolised a decline in Islamic governance and influence, leaving the Ummah without a unified “shield.”
Many groups have since campaigned for its restoration, viewing it as a religious obligation and a solution to contemporary challenges.
